HUMAN DUTIES

UNIT- 4

HUMAN DUTIES:

Deontology

Quest: Discuss Deontological theory as the theory of duty.

Ans. The ‘deontology’ has been derived from the word ‘deon’ which means duty or obligation.  And ethics is the normative science which gives the directives of do’s and don’ts, dictates behavioural norms. Whereas values are expressed in the evaluative statements.

       Religious laws give the code of conduct which are based on the deontological theories.  The eminent philosopher in the school of deontology is Kant.  The moral code of conduct given by Kant is on reason.  He does not base his concept of duty in God’s will.  He does not ground his norm of duty in particular culture, either.  The will is autonomous and motivated by good will, categorically.  He says that ‘good will is a will that wills nothing’.  The value is intrinsic to the good will. This sense of duty is self-motivated. Sacrifice and affection of a mother for her child is autonomous and without any self-interest.   This principle of duty is intrinsically self imposed.  Autonomous will is monitored by rules.

       Two types of imperatives categorical and hypothetical dictate the norms.  Nothing in this world is good without qualification except goodwill.  Any quality or talent of the character will be rendered bad if the will is not good.  Reason has its influence on the will.  This good will is valuable in itself not for the sake of anything else. It implies the prudence and wisdom.  It is the condition of all the other values and virtues.  So, the notion of duty includes the good will.

       To satisfy oneself is one’s duty to oneself because in the state of discontent, one would not be able to perform one’s duties.  But generally people tend to satisfy themselves instead of doing their duties.  One should enjoy doing one’s duty and derive happiness from it, even though he is not interested in general desire for happiness.

ROSS AND PRIMA FACIE DUTIES:

Quest: Prima Facie Duty (Dec-2013, 100 Words)

Quest: Human duties (June-2013, 100 words)

Ans: Prima Facie Duty:  According to D Ross there are three intrinsic values: Virtue, knowledge and pleasure.  These values can conflict with each others, in difficult situations.  Apart from three values there are seven prime facie duties, according to D Ross.  These duties are: fidelity, reparation, gratitude, justice, generosity, self improvement, no ill will. Thus, we find that duties are much more than values. Therefore, it is difficult to correlate them. Mulligan has mentioned three reasons, in order to not to confuse norms and values in the condition of differences between normative statements and axiological statements: Firstly, values can be compared but norms cannot be.  Secondly, determinable axiological predicates are different from determinate axiological predicates.  But normative expressions cannot be differentiated.  Thirdly, determinate properties imply determinate natural properties while normative properties do not imply them. Normative properties are related to natural properties through axiological properties.

       It is possible that since there are several values they may enter into conflict with one another.  There are three obstacles to   the derivation of norms from values:  1. values are related only to actions, 2. A good action is obligatory only if it possible and 3. An action having a positive value is obligatory only if it does not have any other negative value. So, it is a bit difficult to apply values in norms.  It is easy to apply ethical values than ethical norms. Therefore, priority must be given to values than to norms.  Though, it is not necessary to deduce norms from values.  Agreeing with this view Max Scheler says that, ‘anything of positive value ought to be and anything of negative value ought not to be’.

JOHN RAWL’S THEORY OF JUSTICE:

(Meeting Injustice)

Quest: Discuss briefly, Rawl’s theory of Justice (Dec-2013, 150 words, June -2014 250 words.)

Ans:  According to John Rawls, ‘that which brings satisfaction to all both in quality and quantity and so is not challenged is justice.  For example, the choice based credit system gives an option to e very student as per his preference, so, that each and every student will feel satisfied. But in an unjust society this type of system is not accepted though the principle is right there.  Because, some powerful persons have the full scope to exploit the weaker one.  For example, white people enslaved blacks and exploited them for centuries.  In India, also feudalism and caste system gave full space for exploitation of the weaker and down trodden.

       According to Rawls the golden rule must be based on self-interest and rationality which will be besides these two positions.  He says that the reason behind this discrimination is ignorance.  And this ignorance is prevailing everywhere, more or less.  So, almost all societies are unjust in some way or other. Being closer to justice is getting out of ignorance.

       The question is: how to get rid of this ignorance? Principles based on the general facts of human nature should be followed. For example: ‘nobody wants to be exploited’, is a fare procedure. Therefore, the principle is also fare. Further, nobody wants to be discriminated,   because everybody has the right to live with dignity and self-respect.  The principle is this that every person should be treated as equal.  Rawls has propounded two general principle of justice which are as follows:

1.  The principle of equal liberty: each person should have equal right to everything. Egalitarianism where equality is practised to the full extent.

2.  Principle of difference: here the greatest benefit to the least advantaged section.  For example: reservations for the deprived sections of the society.

Though apparently both these principles seem contradictory but they are complementary to each other. While the first one talks about equality, the second one supports positive discrimination which is a part of distributive justice, just opposite to retributive justice.

DIFFERENT TYPES OF NORMS:

Quest: Explain fundamental norms and derived norms(  Dec.2013 , 250 words)

Ans: There are three types of norms mentioned by ethicists: obligatory, prohibitive and permissive.  Action which is an obligation is obligatory action.  Prohibitive actions are those, which we should not do.  Neither obligatory nor prohibitive action is permissible one. This type of action is allowed to do.

       To indicate obligatory action english term ‘right’ is used while for prohibitive actions the word ‘wrong’ is used. Actions which are in conformity with the obligation is ‘right’ whereas those which are not in conformity with it are ‘wrong’. To violate any prohibition is also to do wrong action.

       There are two types of norms: ethical and non-ethical.  A fundamental ethical norm is one that is not derived from any other, but from which other norms can be derived.  And to derive any ethical value from a more fundamental ethical value, it is necessary to include into reasoning a non-ethical proposition, which refers to a particular context.  To explain it more it may be said that fundamental norms are universal whereas derived are a particular one.  For example: ‘bribery is an offence’ is a fundamental norm from which the derived norm ‘taking money for admission is bribery’ may be derived. To include some non-ethical proposition to make a link between the fundamental and derived norms is necessary.  So it must include this non-ethical proposition that ‘taking money for admissions amounts to bribery’.

Q1. What is duty?

Ans. Derived from the Latin world debitum, which means debt which is owed to other, the very word duty is correlative of right. Any well-founded claim of someone must be approved by others, as it is their moral responsibility. And this right of one person makes him responsible to others to allow the same right. On the whole, everybody has some duties towards others, to god and also to nature. All these duties are inherent in our human nature.

Q2. Explain Deontology of Kant and its implications.

Ans. The ‘deontology’ has been derived from the word ‘deon’ which means duty or obligation.  And ethics is the normative science which gives the directives of do’s and don’ts, dictates behavioural norms. Whereas values are expressed in the evaluative statements.

       Religious laws give the code of conduct which are based on the deontological theories.  The eminent philosopher in the school of deontology is Kant.  The moral code of conduct given by Kant is on reason.  He

does not base his concept of duty in God’s will.  He does not ground his norm of duty in particular culture, either.  The will is autonomous and motivated by good will, categorically.  He says that ‘good will is a will that wills nothing’.  The value is intrinsic to the good will. This sense of duty is self-motivated. Sacrifice and affection of a mother for her child is autonomous and without any self-interest. This principle of duty is intrinsically self-imposed.  Autonomous will is monitored by rules.

       Two types of imperatives categorical and hypothetical dictate the norms.  Nothing in this world is good without qualification except goodwill.  Any quality or talent of the character will be rendered bad if the will is not good.  Reason has its influence on the will.  This good will is valuable in itself not for the sake of anything else. It implies the prudence and wisdom.  It is the condition of all the other values and virtues.  So, the notion of duty includes the good will.

       To satisfy oneself is one’s duty to oneself because in the state of discontent, one would not be able to perform one’s duties.  But generally people tend to satisfy

themselves instead of doing their duties.  One should enjoy doing one’s duty and derive happiness from it, even though he is not interested in general desire for happiness.

Q3. Explain fundamental norms  and derived norms.

Ans: There are three types of norms mentioned by ethicists: obligatory, prohibitive and permissive.  Action which is an obligation is obligatory action.  Prohibitive actions are those, which we should not do.  Neither obligatory nor prohibitive action is permissible one. This type of action is allowed to do.

       To indicate obligatory action english term ‘right’ is used while for prohibitive actions the word ‘wrong’ is used. Actions which are in conformity with the obligation is ‘right’ whereas those which are not in conformity with it are ‘wrong’. To violate any prohibition is also to do wrong action.

       There are two types of norms: ethical and non-ethical.  A fundamental ethical norm is one that is not derived from

any other, but from which other norms can be derived.  And to derive any ethical value from a more fundamental ethical value, it is necessary to include into reasoning a non-ethical proposition, which refers to a particular context.  To explain it more it may be said that fundamental norms are universal whereas derived are a particular one.  For example: ‘bribery is an offence’ is a fundamental norm from which the derived norm ‘taking money for admission is bribery’ may be derived. To include some non-ethical proposition to make a link between the fundamental and derived norms is necessary.  So it must include this non-ethical proposition that ‘taking money for admissions amounts to bribery’.

Q4. Explain John Rawls Theory of Justice.

Ans:  According to John Rawls, ‘that which brings satisfaction to all both in quality and quantity and so is not challenged is justice.  For example, the choice based credit system gives an option to e very student as per his preference, so, that each and every student will feel satisfied. But in an unjust society this type of system is not

accepted though the principle is right there. Because, some powerful persons have the full scope to exploit the weaker one.  For example, white people enslaved blacks and exploited them for centuries.  In India, also feudalism

and caste system gave full space for exploitation of the weaker and down trodden.

       According to Rawls the golden rule must be based on self-interest and rationality which will be besides these two positions.  He says that the reason behind this discrimination is ignorance.  And this ignorance is prevailing everywhere, more or less.  So, almost all societies are unjust in some way or other. Being closer to justice is getting out of ignorance.

       The question is: how to get rid of this ignorance? Principles based on the general facts of human nature should be followed. For example: ‘nobody wants to be exploited’, is a fare procedure. Therefore, the principle is also fare. Further, nobody wants to be discriminated,   because everybody has the right to live with dignity and self-respect.  The principle is this that every person should be treated as equal.  Rawls has propounded two general principle of justice which are as follows:

1.  The principle of equal liberty: each person should have equal right to everything. Egalitarianism where equality is practised to the full extent.

2.  Principle of difference: here the greatest benefit to the least advantaged section.  For example: reservations for the deprived sections of the society.

Though apparently both these principles seem contradictory but they are complementary to each other. While the first one talks about equality, the second one supports positive discrimination which is a part of distributive justice, just opposite to retributive justice.