ETHICS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

OM NAMAH SHIVAY OM SAI RAM

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ETHICS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

INTRODUCTION: Morality is an integral part of human existence. It is conducive for maintaining peace and harmony in the society. And whenever there was lack of peace and harmony in the society, gods took birth to save human being, according to Indian philosophy. Rationality was supposed to be the foundation of morality for many religious teachers and philosophers. Dharmasastras of Hindu dharma have prescribed caste duties to monitor the life of the community. The primary source of Indian ethical norms is Vedas. And apart from it, other literature and teachings of Indian religions constitute the foundation of Indian ethics. Thus, Indian ethics is an integral part of Hindu religion and other religions of India.

 Ethics in Indian philosophy has two sources: metaphysics and religion. The metaphysical foundation of morality is the human inter-relatedness. Further, most of the moral codes are based on religious beliefs, social customs and traditions. In fact, we have in Indian philosophy religious ethics in the form of Hindu, Jain and Buddhist ethics.

Morality enables man to discriminate good action from bad  ones and also judge others actions according to its norms. So, it can be said that moral standards are the criteria for judging human being’s character and conduct. That’s why, morality is to be implemented on men not on animals. And moral laws are meant for morally good and right life.

Morality, as an institution, evaluates and assesses the actions of human beings as good or bad and right or wrong. And by morality, one can judge the actions and character of others. As a study of ‘ought’, ethics decides certain norms for what one ought to do. Thus, morality means living within the frame of certain principles of conduct given by authorities. To conform to the principles of conduct is to lead a moral life. Since human being is generally inclined to behave according to his animal spirit, certain norms of morality is needed, so that he can restrain the animality in him and behave according to his higher spirit of human being.

Spirit was much more a matter of concern for the ancestors of Hindu’s because of their spiritual approach to life. Life before birth and life after death was discussed extensively because they considered spirit on par with Brahman. They believed in the cyclic process of birth and death. According to their belief, being associated with the body, the soul performs good or bad deeds and reaps the reward or punishment accordingly. Soul for them was eternal entity which was continuously engaged in action and resultantly was bound to reap the fruits of its actions. Since, only happiness is desired, one should have the power of discrimination so that he could differentiate good actions from bad one and do only good actions which will result in happiness. So, the propounders of the laws made them in that form which was conducive for their goals of life.

So, this unit, discusses the source and origin of Indian ethics along with its meaning. Also, it deals with ethics in the Vedic period and ethics in Dharmashashtras and Itihasas. It gives an exhaustive view of ethics in Hindu tradition, ethics in the Gita and Buddhist and Jain ethics.

SOURCES OF MORAL IDEALS IN INDIA:  

Since    the beginning of the Indian culture, we are being told to observe certain moral norms.  But the question is: What is the basis of these moral norms?  Of course, the source of morality in India is none other than the Vedas and Smrities.   Dharmashastra of Manu is the source of moral ideals in India. But, Vedas are the principle source of moral ideals of which authenticity is beyond question.  So, in the state of conflict, the norms dictated by Vedas are given priority.

Besides scriptures, conscience and reason also play a crucial role in morality.  Due to the voice of inner conscience men feel compassion for others. Then only they are able to behave in a moral way. The source of morality may be, good will and determination as well.  Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo were the proponent of the prominence of inner conscience in the decision  making process, regarding the matters of morality.

        The importance of authority and reasoning is of equal importance in Indian ethics. Reason is of utmost importance in both Buddhism and Jainism.  Right faith has been given priority over other jewels, in Jainism.  Nowhere, it has been said that one should blindly follow the precepts of Hindu ethics.  In Buddhism also reason has been given much importance.  Though, Lord Buddha ascertained four noble truths but not to be followed by blindfolded followers. There is always place for reason and doubt in it. Contemporary philosophers, like Gandhi and Vivekananda, has also given much importance to reason.  Though, not the source of ethical norms, reason may be used to ascertain the validity of it.

                     Thus, it has been proved that though the role of scriptures in deciding the moral ideals is undisputed fact yet reason and conscience cannot be ruled out from this domain.

ETHICS: IT’S MEANING IN INDIAN TRADITION:

In Indian tradition ‘dharma’ the very technical word is used for

‘ethics’ or ‘morality.  This very word ‘dharma’ has been derived from the root ‘dhri’ which means ‘to hold together’.  Thus, dharma is the very element which makes it possible for the human society to become stable and grow.  For the survival of the human society, right conduct is necessary. So, dharma, in a sense, is synonymous with morality.  Thus, dharma signifies highest truth and power in the Vedas. Its implementation lies in the performance of Vedic sacrifices and rituals of the Vedas and Dharmashastras.

        This very word ‘dharma’ has been used in the sense of duties of human being, according to one’s own caste and stages of life.  By performing one’s duties, one can achieve heaven or better birth in the next life.  He or she can become prosperous by performing his/her duties.   Thus, the Hindu concept of dharma is mainly ritualistic and caste oriented.

        In fact, the very term ‘dharma’ has been used in Hinduism in two senses.  One is based on rituals and caste whereas another is related to the moral virtues and norms. So, dharma is inclusive of both duties and virtues in Indian tradition.

ETHICS IN VEDIC PERIOD:

The origin of Indian ethics may be traced back to the Vedic period. The central theme of Rig Veda is the concept of ‘Rit’ which signifies the universal law of morality.  This concept of ‘Rit’ includes two connotations: Dharma and Karma. The term dharma has been mainly used in the sense of ‘duty’ whereas the concept of karma signifies the ‘universal law of morality’. This very universal law monitors the actions of the human beings. Vedic ethics, also includes the love and worship offered to the god with total surrender. To perform the sacrifices and ceremonial duties is to conform to the moral law i.e. Rit. And that very person will be able to achieve heaven.  Thus, ethics of the Vedas is God centric ethics.

In the Upanishadic age, the goal of life shifted from happiness to liberation. The God centric approach of life turned into atman-centric. Ritualism changed into intellectualism. Desire of heaven was replaced by the eternal existence and basis of liberation. Upanishadic ethics was totally opposed to the sacrificial ethics of the Vedas.  According to them, no sacrifice or ritual was needed for the attainment of moksha. So, human being were preached to concentrate on the atman not on the social or moral obligation. Realization of the identity of soul with Brahman was the only goal to be achieved by the human being. The subject matter of Upanishadic ethics was only from the point of view of transcendental realism not this phenomenal world. Just to get rid of the evil spirit within was the whole sole purpose of life.  In the dictum of liberation from evil, spirit is to be wholly morality implied. To get rid of ignorance is the target of human being because this ignorance is the cause of transmigration of the soul.  A person who has got enlightenment will not indulge in misdeeds because fair actions are the condition for the attainment of self-realization.

ETHICS IN DHARMASASTRAS AND ITIHASAS:

The ethics in the Dharmashashtras and Itihasas  is mainly based on the Manusmriti  of Manu and Epics and Puranas.  Individual ethics of morality of Upanishadic age shifted to the socialistic ethics of Hinduism.  Any individual will, of course, live in a family and society.  His caste also decides the moral norms, he is supposed to follow.  Man’s existence being relative to space and time, his duties also vary from time to time and place to place.  It also changes as per the class and the stages of life.  But though, human being has relative existence yet there are several universal virtues which men are supposed to follow.  These virtues are: contentment, forgiveness, self-control, non-stealing cleanliness, restraint of the senses, wisdom, knowledge of the Supreme Atman, truthfulness and abstention from anger etc. All these virtues are called sadharana dharma in Indian ethics which are the basis of morality.

        So, though different on the point of goal of human being, all the scriptures have more or less a common ‘ethics’.

WAY OF RIGHTEOUSNESS IN THE GEETA:

Righteous action is the means to realization of Brahman. Through the realization of Brahmajnana one should perform action. And Brahmajnana is to be attained through devotion, renunciation and self-surrender. Attachment is the cause of desire and unfulfilled desire in turn makes man angry which leads to infatuation. Loss of memory is the result of infatuation which culminates in elimination of the doer. So, Brahmajnana is the only means to get rid of all kinds of bondages. Or the other way round, by surrendering oneself to Brahman and trying to get rid of all kinds of bondages, one can realize Brahman.

With a sense of detachment one should perform action. Through detachment in action one can attain Brahmajnana. Though, Gita recommends both jnana yoga and karma yoga as means for Brahmajnana yet it gives priority to karma yoga. The  karma yoga of the Gita implies action with a sense of detachment and Brahmajnana through devotional meditation. The natural outcome of Brahmayoga is moral success and infinite spiritual joy peace.

The alternative method of jnana yoga is karma yoga which will lead to self-realization and deliverance from the cycle of birth and death. This unique method of the Gita is called Nishkama karma yoga. Deliverance will be possible only when one is totally free from the bondage of one’s actions. And freedom from ones actions is possible only through detachment in action.

i. e. disinterestedness in the fruits of actions.

The path other than Brahma Yoga is Karma Yoga, for the attainment of ultimate realization in this life and liberation from the cycle of transmigration.  This karma yoga is the yoga of disinterested action i.e. Nishkama Karma.  Attainment of liberation is possible only after one has freed oneself from the bondage of one’s own actions.  The special significance of the Karma Yoga is in its spirit of non- attachment to only fruits of the actions, not the action itself.  As Saral Jhingaran opines that ‘the Bhagavadgita’s option of desireless action seems to be the perfect answer to the common fear of involvement in the transmigratory existence’.

       The detachment, that the Gita generally upholds, except a few passages, is neither as extreme, nor as negative, as that of the Advaita works.  As Vidyaranya says that the Bhagavadgita uses the term ‘like a detached person (udasinavat)’ which means that obsolete detachment is not required by it.  It’s ideal of equanimity or desirelessness refers mainly to the mental attitude of the agent and does not mean disowning one’s duties and social obligations.

       Saral Jhingaran further writes that, ‘the theism of the Bhagavadgita further transforms theory and negative ideal of world – renunciation and absolute detachment towards one’s fellow beings into a much more positive ideal of performance of all one’s duties in a spirit of total self –surrender to the Lord’.

‘Aspects of Hindu morality’ Saral Jhingaran – P-186

The altruistic morality involved in the verses of the Gita is evident in the following passage:

“ The self abiding in all beings and all beings abiding in the self sees he, whose  self has been made steadfast by Yoga and who everywhere sees the same_ _’.

Further, ‘He, O Arjuna, who sees with equality everything in the image of his own self, whether in pleasure or in pain, he is considered a perfect Yogin’.

Also, in the Gita an ideal devotee has been described as one who is kind and friendly towards all.

ETHICAL CONCEPTS OF HINDU TRADITION:

Doctrine of Karma:

In fact Karma means action and its result is the reaction of that very action and a part of action itself.  So, the result or effect cannot be separated from the cause or action.

        The source of origin of the doctrine of karma is Vedas and mainly Rig Veda. The whole ethical concept of Rig Veda is based on the concept of ‘Rita’, which means ‘universal law of morality’.  The concept of ‘Dharma’ and ‘Karma’ are the natural corollary of the concept of ‘Rita’ of the Vedas.  The concept of dharma has various interpretations. One of them is ‘duty’. The concept of Karma is based on the universal law of morality, which monitors the actions of the performers and the rewards and punishments as per their actions are given. The basis of both the concept of dharma and karma is Rita.  To conform to the universal moral law, one has to perform the sacrifices. Only then, one will achieve the eternal happiness in the heaven.

According to the doctrine of karma, the sorrows and happiness occurring in one’s life is the result of his deeds in the past.  There is a saying regarding the law of karma that, ‘as you sow, so shall you reap’. So, this life and its events are the harvest sprung from our own actions.  Good actions incur good results while bad actions incur bad results.  In the basis of sequence of actions, there are four types of karmas. First one is Sanchita Karma, which is that category of karma which were accumulated in the past life.  Second category of karma is Prarabdha Karma which is a part of Sanchita Karma which has started fructifying in this life.  Third, category of karma is Kriyamana Karma which is the name given to the actions being done in the present life.  The fourth and the last category of karma is Agami Karma.   It is that type of actions which are being done in the present and fructifying immediately after performance

Transmigration of Soul:   Transmigration of soul is the crucial point of the Hindu ethics.  It is the basis of the doctrine of Karma.  Life and death is a cyclic process and this is possible only with the acceptance of the concept of transmigration. The individual continues to exist, even after the death of the body in the form of soul and this continuation is indefinite.  Due to the confinement of the soul in the body it gets entangled in the process of birth and death.  According to the Karmas done by the individual it goes through innumerable birth and deaths.  And ultimately after the exhaustion of all the karmas, it gets liberated.

As John M    Keller says that ‘the idea of samsara  appears to be the result of a natural progression of thought.  Birth here, in this world, is followed by death, which is followed by rebirth in another heavenly world.  If birth here is followed by death here, will not birth there also be followed by death there’?

       This continuous procedure of birth and death is the natural outcome of actions.  Sankara says that actions produce association with the body.  Being associated with the body the agent goes through good and bad phases of life.  From these happenings there arises attachment and aversion which leads to further actions.  When these actions bear fruits, there is again association with the body and further action.  He writes in the Upadeshsahasri (1.1.3):

 “As this is repeated, this transmigratory existence (samsara) rolls onwards powerfully ,forever, like a wheel.  Because ignorance is the root cause of samsaric  existence, only knowledge  can destroy ignorance, action being incompatible,  cannot”.

       This view of Shankara is supported by all the systems of Indian philosophy except Mimamsa and Charvaka.  Though all the systems vary in the details of the theory, yet they all have consented to the law of Karma. This theory of Karma asserts that every action has its effect.  This effect affects both the agent and the world in which the agent acts. The residual effect of the Karmas determine the future of the agent and his further actions, as well. The impressions of the Karmas create the character and the habits of the doer. The Vasanas created by these actions lead the person to a certain birth.  Some latent impressions which couldn’t fructify in this life are carried over into the next birth.  This is the cause of the transmigration of the soul.  Since, it is action which carries its energies forward in to the future, it is impossible to get rid of this cyclic process of samsara through actions.  Only self–realization can help the jiva from the clutches of the transmigration.

SUPREME  GOALS:

(PURUSHARTHAS):

The four values on the basis of which one should lead life, as per Hindu dharma are : dharma, artha, kama and moksha.  Dharma is of two types: sadharana  dharma and varnashrama dharma.  Sadharana  dharma as the name itself suggests, is of common types of duties  with an universal appeal and validity. Manu laid down ten types of cardinal virtues which are: endurance, patience, self-control, integrity, purity, restraint of senses, wisdom, learning, truth, absence of anger and non-violence.  All these ten virtues are included in the sadharana dharma.

        While varna dharma refers to the duties on the basis of one’s caste,   ashram dharma is related to the duties according to the stages of life.  In Hindu ethics, dharma is considered as a means  to liberation.

        The second purushartha, according to Hindu view of life, is ‘artha’. ‘Artha’ is the name given to the wealth and prosperity. Everything related to the materialistic achievement is indicated by this word.

        The third purushartha, which is named ‘kama’ is a comprehensive term which includes every type of desires, sexual as well as spiritual one.  This is the special characteristic of Indian ethics that it prescribes secular pleasures as well as the spiritual one. The concept of karma has been also included in Hindu ethics for the purpose of spiritual goal of human being. Though, it has been mentioned that this enjoyment must be restricted one.

The fourth purushartha which is called as param purushartha is, liberation.  All the other three are instrumental for it.  It is also called mukti because it frees one from the cyclic process of birth and death. Kaivalya, apavarga, nirvana are the other names of it.

 Classical Hindu ethics recognizes four legitimate values, the purusharthas (dharma, artha, kama and moksha) of these dharma seems being parallel to the notion of morality, while moksha represents a value higher then  morality.

(Roy W. Perrett- ‘Hindu Ethics- A Philosophical study’ – p.-46)

        As John M Keller rightly says that since everything tangible and material is subject to death and destruction, it was logical to seek for a solution to the problem of re-birth in an intangible or spiritual reality, with which the true self could be identified.

SVADHARMA:

The word ‘sva’ means ‘one’s own’.  So the word ‘svadharma’ means ‘one’s own dharma’ which is based on one’s caste and stages of life.  In fact the basis of the caste system is the theory of the three gunas i.e. sattva, rajas and tamas.  As per the prominence of the particular guna, one is assigned duty.  This very assigned duty of any individual on the basis of his guna is his svadharma.  According to the Indian ethical code, this arrangement is conducive to the smooth functioning of the society. This hierarchical arrangement is necessary for the development of the society.

Varnadharma:

According to Hindu ethics the four social clauses are: the Brahmana or priestly caste, whose social function is to study and teach the Vedas to perform sacrifices and to accept gifts; the Kshatriya, the ruler and warrior caste, whose function is to preserve order, it is necessary by force of arms; the Vaishya or merchant caste, whose economic activities ensure the physical well being of society; and the sudra or labourer, who serves the three other classes so that all of the above may function smoothly.  Various duties are assigned to members of the four varnas, taking into consideration the operation of the society as a whole.

   According to Hindu ethics the profession of any individual was to be determined by his gunas and birth. He was supposed to continue the profession of the family because he must have inherited the inclinations of his parents, that’s why he must be efficient enough to do his ancestral job. Though the propounder of the system had logic of their own for this social stratification yet it was unjust to prohibit any person from changing his job, even though he had developed a quality different from his parents.

Sudra was denied the right of performing the upanayana samskara and Vedic rights. He wasn’t even allowed to read or listen Vedas. He was severely punished for doing all these things.

Just opposite to Sudra, Brahmin was exempted from state taxes and couldn’t be given corporal punishment. He was honored and awarded all kinds of gifts. Any person who did any offensive behavior against Brahmin was severely punished.

Thus, we find that, though logical, this caste system of Hindu ethics is considered as controversial.

STAGES OF LIFE: (ASHRAMA DHARMA):

Indian Ethics is mainly based on Hindu religion and ashram dharma is also a part of Hindu religion.  According to it life is divided into four stages. First one is that of the Brahmachari (studenthood).  This studenthood  is based on celibacy and study of scriptures.  The second stage is Grihastha i.e. householder while third one is Vanaprastha i.e. the forest dwellers and the last one is that of Sannyasin  i.e. the mendicant. Every man has to go through these stages one by one and should not enter any stage before time. Without violating the rule of celibacy, one should study the Vedas and after that enter into householder’s life.  And when his hairs start graying and skin wrinkling, at the same time he has grandson also, he should retire to the forest. After he has finished this third stage of life, he should accept asceticism and wander as mendicant. These four stages have been mentioned in the Hindu dharma, taking into consideration the development of the Jivatma. At the same time, it is condusive to the society.

        As John M. Keller rightly says, ‘the theory of life-stages (Ashrama) and the ordering of dharmas according to these stages is the most obvious attempt to accommodate both the dharmic and the sansaric understanding of action with a single scheme’.

        But Saral Jhingaran is of different view.  She writes that though  theoretically, all males of the three ‘upper’ classes were expected to follow the scheme of four stages of life. But in practice the four consecutive orders were not usually adopted by people other than the Brahmanas. It is significant that Manu, after describing the duties of four classes (Varnas), discusses the four stages under the duties of brahmanas. Brahmanas alone adopted regular brahmacarya, as a detailed knowledge of the Vedas and allied subjects was required for their particular profession of teaching and priesthood. Most people entered the second stage of grihastha (married life) after having spent only a few years in formal education.

 In the same manner the last two stages have been mentioned in Mahabharata for Brahmans, only.

Hindu Rites, Samaskaras:  The special feature of Brahmanical religion and philosophy is sacrifice. Sacrifice is meant not only to appease the Gods but also feed them. By performing these rituals one can alone get rid of one’s sins. One of the most important sacrifices is the Srauta sacrifice and the Grihya ritual.  There is also provision of sacraments, known as Sanskaras. These Sanskaras are done to purify the body, mind and intellect of the individual. ‘Samkalpa’ or determination is the necessary factor for the performance of these sacraments. Some of the important Samskaras are :  Garbhadhanam ( conception), Pumsavanam (ensuring the male offspring), Simanthonnayanam (parting of the hair), Jata-Karmam ( Birth-ceremony), Namakaranam ( naming  ceremony),  Nishkramanam ( taking the child out of the house, so that he may see the sun), Annaprasanam ( the first feeding of the  child  with solid food in the sixth month), Chudakaranam ( the rite of tonsure ceremony),  karnavedham ( piercing of earlobes), Vidhyarambham ( beginning of knowledge)  Upanayanam ( Initiation by a teacher), Samavarthanam, Vivaha (marriage),  Antyesti ( funeral rights) etc,  

ETHICS IN BUDDHISM:

Ten meritorious  deeds mentioned  by Buddha, for gaining happy and peaceful life are as follows:  Charity, Morality, Mental culture , Reverence  or Respect, Service in helping others,  Sharing merits with others, Rejoicing in the merits of others, Preaching and teaching of Dharma,  Listening of 

Dharma, Straightening one’s views. We ourselves get the benefit of these meritorious deeds and persons who come into contact with us are also benefitted by it.  We are able to live in harmonious relations with others and peace is the natural outcome of it. Sharing merits with others shows ones philanthropic attitude. By enjoying others merits one can boost his moral to perform more. By helping others one can improve their lives. By teaching to the disciple the teacher himself can enjoy and by learning the disciple also enjoys. If one has a clear cut concept of his Dhamma then only he will be able to convince others of his view.

  

On the other hand there are ten demeritorious deeds as well, prohibited by Buddha. The cause of this type activities are avarice, envy and ignorance. These ten deeds are divided into three sets:   actions of body, verbal actions and actions of the mind. Killing of living beings, stealing and unlawful sexual intercourse are the misdeeds, which come in the first –category.  While in the second category come the deeds like – lying, slander harsh speech and meaningless talk.  Mental actions which are prohibited are: covetousness, ill-will, wrong views.  Rooted in greed, hatred and ignorance these misdeeds bring suffering to human beings.

       Intention of the deeds is the criterion for Buddhist morality. Actions performed out of wisdom, love and charity are good actions while actions performed out of greed and hatred are bad actions. Wisdom, love and charity are the three good roots of Buddhism out of which actions originate. ‘ Root’ is here interpreted as intention.

Ignorance is the root cause of malicious behaviour whereas wisdom is the basis of benevolence. Mental purification is the first requirement of any Buddhist practitioner. One should try to  get rid  of avarice, aversion and imprudenc. One should not also do good deeds out of fear or to appease the divine beings or supernatural elements. Actions performed out of wisdom and understanding, are the good one.

Five Precepts:

       There are five precepts mentioned by Buddhism to be remembered by any Buddhist daily. They are like this: I take the training rule to refrain from killing living creatures, taking which is not given, sexual misconduct, false speech and taking intoxicating drugs and liquor. These are the five prohibitory acts which are called the panchsheela. These five refrains are conducive for any Buddhist’s spiritual progress. So, every Buddhist should remind himself of these precepts daily.  Because without following these precepts one wouldn’t be able to cultivate one’s mind. And without the cultivation of mind one wouldn’t be able to use properly the power of meditation.

Kindness and Charity:

       To cultivate boundless love towards all beings is called “Metta” in Buddhism.  Without any expectation in return, whatever is done is the true charity.  One should not try to overpower others or make feel grateful to him, in response to the charity done by him. Charity must be merely a means to culminate virtue. So, it must set free both recipient and donar. The act of Charity must be an integrated effort of mind, body and heart. Dana decreases ones hankering and ego-centricity.

 Compassion for all living beings is another significant feature of Buddhism. One should not restrict oneself to the human beings only. Every living being has the right to live.  So, it is immoral to take away the life of any living being. It shows the unrestrained desire of human beings. Existence of every creature is a part of universal order.  So, to destroy any creature is to destroy the universal order.  We don’t have any right to live, if we do not let others live.  Thus, holistic is approach of Buddhism.

JAIN ETHICS:

After rejecting Vedic ceremonialism and sacrificialism, Jainism accepts ahimsa as the most important ethical virtue.  Right knowledge, right faith and right conduct are the three gems of Jainism which are known as ‘Triratnas’. Knowledge, which is free from doubt, error and uncertainty, is the right kind of knowledge.  It is based on the discrimination of ego and non-ego.  By studying thoroughly the teachings of the Tirthankaras, this type of knowledge can be obtained. Since three Tirthankaras have already attained liberation, they can guide others to come out of bondage.

       Again, right faith does not mean blindly follow the
Tirthankaras.  But right attitude of respect towards truth is needed.  This right attitude should be supported by right knowledge.  Further, one must have right faith based on general acquaintance (samyag- darsana) in support of right knowledge. One’s belief is strengthened by studying the teachings of the Tirthankaras.

       But without right kind of conduct both right knowledge and right faith are useless.  Without rigorous practice of the preaching of Tirthankaras,  liberation is impossible.  Right kind of application of these teachings is the necessary condition for liberation.   Till the influx of new karmas has been ceased and exhaustion of the old one are done, enlightenment would not occur.  Restraint of passions, senses, thought, speech etc. are required for it.  Positively one has to do good deeds and negatively one has to refrain from doing evil deeds.

One has to follow five great views i.e. pancamaha-vrata for perfection of right conduct. These five views are Ahimsa, satyam, asteyam, brahmacharyam and aparigraha. Ahimsa is not to kill any living being either trasa or sthavara. Satyam is abstinence from falsehood.  Only whatever is true, good and pleasant must be spoken.  One should not steal anything belonging to others.  To refrain from sensual and sexual pleasure as well, is brahmacharya.  A sense of detachment is to be developed for giving up all kinds of material things which are related to five senses.

       Thus, Jainism lays down the three golden rules for the perfection and liberation of human beings.

Questions of the unit:

Q.1- What are the sources of ethics and their ideals in Indian tradition?

Ans. Morality is the basis of society due to which human being sustains. And in order to behave in moral way one needs some guidelines. Vedas and Smrities are the primary source of these ethical principles. Though both these scriptures are of utmost importance for moral guidelines yet Vedas has been given priority over smrities. And in case of any type of disagreement between the two, Vedas are preferred to smrities.

Since, moral laws doesn’t have any legal basis, observance of these laws is subject to the inner conscience of the agent. Also, he is to take help of his reason in order to abide by the rules of the society. Right will is the will which wills right things. That’s why right will has mentioned as the guiding star of morality by Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo. Any desire and ambition based on right will has to be given priority over desires based on emotions. Right will is the only source of taking moral decisions.

Morality in India is based on authority and social reasoning, as well. Reason plays very crucial role in both Buddhism and Jainism. Right faith has been given priority over the other two jewels in Jainism. Right reason is the only guiding star in choosing precepts for observance. In Buddhism also reason has not been rejected. Though four noble truths has been mentioned to follow yet in case of any type of conflict, only right reason has to play the decisive role.

Even in the contemporary Hindu ethics reason has been mentioned of utmost importance. Among the proponents of reason, Gandhi and Swami Vivekananda are the prominent figures. Though, according to them, reason is not the source of morality yet it can help in taking decisions.

Thus, we may say that Vedas and Smrities are the primary source of ethical norms in Indian ethics of which right reason and inner conscience are the subsidiaries.

Q.2- Explain the ethics of the Gita.

Ans. Realization of Supreme Reality through moral behavior is the central theme of the Gita. Realization of Brahman is possible though devotion, renunciation and self-surrender. Any Brahmajnani spontaneously acts in righteous manner because of sense of detachment. Attachment is the cause of desires which leads to anger and frustration. Anger in turn leads to infatuation which is the cause of memory loss. This loss of memory with mind becomes the cause of elimination of the agent. Therefore, to become liberated one has to realize Brahman and surrender oneself to the Lord or the other way round. One can realize Brahman only after getting rid of the evil spirit of oneself and bondages of every kind. So, one should act disinterestedly. Detachment will result in Brahmajnana.

Brahmajnana is possible both through jnanayoga and karmayoga, according to the Gita. But, Gita gives preference to karmayoga. Righteousness is the natural outcome of Brahmajnana. And any Brahmajnani will naturally become happy and lead a peaceful life.

Karmayoga is the alternate of jnanayoga for self-realization, as mentioned by the Gita. This method of karmayoga is described as nishkama karmayoga because total emphasis has been given here on detachment from the fruits of actions. This sense of detachment is the only way which is conducive for getting rid of the fruits of the karmas and become liberated. This is the golden rule which has been given priority over jnanayoga in the Gita.

Q.3- What are the Hindu ethical ideals in Indian tradition?

Ans. In fact, Indian tradition is all about spirituality though it doesn’t reject material life. So, ethical ideals of Hindu tradition comprises the doctrine of karma, transmigration of soul, supreme goals in the form of four purusarthas, svadharma and varna dharma, stages of life i. e. ashram dharma, and Hindu rights. A brief introduction of all these are like this:

Doctrine of Karma: Since spirituality is the foundation of Indian Philosophy, the ancestors of Hindus were much more concerned about the life after death than the life here in this world.  That eternal entity, which exists even after death was considered as soul, as part of Brahman.  This very soul takes births, rebirths and reaps the fruits of actions.  Every embodied soul performs several actions throughout life.

        As per the law of Karma, if the agent acts in conformity with the law of Karma then he is happy, otherwise unhappy.  Being eternal, the soul never dies and at the same time it never exists without doing action.  Since, fruits of the Karmas are a part of Karma itself, the soul can   never be exempted from it.  It necessarily reaps whatever it had sown in the past.  Since, happiness is desired by all, every man should discriminate good actions from bad one so that he could achieve this goal.

       

Transmigration of Soul: Transmigration of soul is the counterpart of the doctrine of karma. According to this theory of the transmigration of soul, the individual continues to exist in another bodily form. Death is a procedure of the elimination of only body. It has been said in the Gita that as any individual changes the worn out cloths with new one. In the same manner the soul changes the body. And with the destruction of body, the soul doesn’t destroy. This procedure of the change of body is an endless process, till the individual gets liberation.

This process of liberation is, in fact, deliverance from the fruits of the karmas. Though, totally pure by nature, the soul is defiled by the karmas and thus gets entangled in the cyclic process of birth and death. So, just to reap the rewards of his karmas, he takes many births till the exhaustion of all the prarabdha karmas.

Supreme Goals (Purusharthas): Four types of goals has been mentioned in Hindu ethics: Dharma, Artha, Kama and Moksha. All these are called Purusharthas as all these four serve the purpose of the life of human being.

Further, there are two distinctions of dharma: sadharana dharma and varnashrama dharma. According to the Dharma Shashtra of Manu, there are ten types of sadharana dharma based on the cardinal virtues i. e. endurance, patience, self-control, integrity, purity, restraint of senses, wisdom, learning and truth, absence of anger and non-violence. While Varnashram dharma is based on the caste and stages of the individual.

The second purushartha i.e. ‘artha’ is all about material attainment. In order to lead a comfortable life artha is essential. Without it one cannot survive.

The third purushartha i.e. ‘kama’ is about every type of desires. It may be physical, mental or spiritual.

The ultimate aim of life is get liberation of which the other three goals are means.

Svadharma: Svadharma:  The dharmic understanding of action given by Manu and Yajnavalkya has its root in the Vedic world view.       According to the Vedic seers, unlike Buddhism, this life is not full of inevitable miseries, of which liberation is the option. Even by doing appropriate work, so that it will synchronize with the cosmic order i.e. rita, one can get the right side of the affections of the worldly existence.

Varnadharma: Sattva (purity), rajas (virility), and tamas (darkness) are the three gunas which every individual is made of. But the prominence of any particular guna decides the cast of any person. And according to his caste he was assigned the duties to perform. This is the social stratification which is called Varnadharma in Hindu ethics. In other words, any individual’s profession decides his caste.

Stages of Life (Ashrama Dharma): The average lifespan of any individual, according to Hindu ethics is hundred years. This total longevity was divided into four parts:

1. Brahmacharya: Brahmacharya is stage of student life with the observance of celibacy. A student attains the knowledge of scriptures during this period. Also, he was supposed to learn the use of arms and horse riding etc..

2. Grihastha: After spending the twenty five years of lifespan in studies, the individual was supposed to marry and lead the life of a householder. During this period he had to finish all his responsibilities regarding his children.

3. Vanaprastha: The lifespan of fifty to seventy five was mentioned as the age of retirement from worldly affairs and head towards forest for meditation.

4. Sannyasa. Sannyasa was the stage of turning into mendicant and try for liberation with a total sense of detachment.

Hindu Rights – Samskaras:

The basic ritual in Hindu tradition is, sacrifice. It is not just meant to appease the gods but to feed them, also. Through sacrifice, the individual seeks the grace of god to get rid of the punishments of his sins. Though there are many sacrifices but the important one are Srauta and Grihya.

Besides rituals, there are many sacraments which are called as Samskaras. These Samskaras are performed to purify the body, mind and the intellect.

The most important Samskaras are the following ones:

1. Garbhadhanam (conception).

2. Pumsavanam (ascertainment of male child).

3.Simanthonnayanam (parting of the hair)

4. Jata-Karmam is the celebration at the time of birth.
5. Nama-Karanam is the ceremony related to naming of

    the child .

6. The ceremony of Nishkramanam is held while taking the child for the first time out of the house to show him the sun.

7. The celebration of feeding the child for the first time with  

     solid food is called Annaprasanam.

8. The first process of tonsure of the child is known as Chudakaranam.

9. Karnavedhanam is the ceremony of ear-piercing.

10. Vidhyarambam samskara is performed while the child for the first time starts studying.

11. Upanayanam is the initiation done by the teacher.

12. Samavarthanam or Vivaha is ceremony of marriage.

13. The end of all functions is the Antyesti or funeral right.

Thus, we find that Hindu ethical ideals in Indian tradition are very comprehensive. It includes in it the whole existence of human being from conception to death. Even life after death has been also included in it. This is the uniqueness of Hindu ethics.

Q. 5 – Write about your personal learning in this unit on Hindu Ethics.

Ans. Comprehensiveness is the special characteristics of Hindu ethics which is lacking in the other religions of Indian philosophy, Buddhism and Jainism.

Though, ancestors of Hindus had a spiritual approach to life yet they didn’t ignore the materialistic aspect of life, as well. Artha and kama has been given the same amount of importance as dharma and moksha.

This integral approach of Hindu ethics makes it unique.

Its concept of four stages of life has also a holistic approach.

It takes into consideration this phenomenal world along with the transcendental world.

The provisions of Hindu samskaras includes each and every phase of life.

Its doctrine of karma is prescriptive and along with the doctrine of transmigration of soul and four purusharthas it becomes the panacea of life.

Its provisions of varna dharma and ashram dharma teaches not to escape from the world and consider ones work as worship. It gives a hope for both house holders and ascetics. So, it is practiceable for all the categories of human beings.

Barring the prohibitions regarding the caste system, which denies the freedom to change ones profession, Hindu ethics is unparalleled.   

Q.6 - What do you understand about the uniqueness of Buddhist morality?

Ans.  According to Buddhism, in order to lead a happy and peaceful life one should perform ten good deeds, which are: charity, morality, mental etiquette, regard, benevolence, exchange of merits, appreciate others qualities,  propagation of dhamma, listening of dhamma and have a clear cut view.

In fact, moral activities have double bonanza of benefiting the doer and recipient both. Showing respect to each other establishes harmony in the society. Cultured and civilized members contribute in peaceful life of the society. One improves the life of others by helping them and by sharing merits also one can do welfare of others. By appreciating others merits one can encourage them improve their performance. To deliver lectures about Dhamma and listen about it are beneficial for both teacher and the disciple.    

Any Buddhist should abstain from evil deeds done out of greed, hatred and delusion. Because these very deeds are the cause of suffering of human beings. These  demeritorious deeds are of three types: bodily, mental and verbal. Killing others, stealing other’s goods or unlawful sexual activity are the three types of physical activities. To tell lie, level false allegations against someone, speak rudely and loose talk are the four types of demeritorious verbal actions.  Feeling of greed, bad wishes for others and wrong perceptions are the three types of evil mental deeds.

The intention of the agent is of utmost importance in Buddhist ethics. Actions performed out selfishness are considered as bad one. On the other hand, actions performed originated out of ‘the three Good Roots’ i.e. love, charity and wisdom are good ones.

The pre-requisite for Buddhism is to remove the evil within like greed, hatred and ignorance. This is required not appease any deity but to purify oneself. So, to act with wisdom not out of fear is central theme of Buddhism. Because moral deeds are conducive for liberation.

Along with tenets to do something there are prohibitions also mentioned in Buddhism. Its five precepts are all about what one should refrain from. These five precepts are: not to kill any creature, not to take anything without permission, refrain from sexual misconduct, not to tell lie and avoid taking intoxicating drugs and liquor. In the absence of observance of these moral codes, it wouldn’t be possible for someone to meditate and also these evils will lead to misuse of the power of spirituality. These five restrictions are named in Buddhism, Pancasila.

Another special characteristic of Buddhist ethics is its concept of ‘Metta’ i.e. universal love. Feeling of love and compassion is required to become moral. Empathy leads to fraternity and humanity. Benevolence is the feeling which inspires the human being to do charity without any expectation of return. Further, it doesn’t make men expect some gratitude from the recipient. Also, Buddhist philosophers preach to not to dominate the recipient. That’s why this act of charity is called ‘Dana’ which means it is done simply to cultivate charity as a virtue. It’s another merit is to rein in the greed and ego-centricity of human beings. Dana must be performed from body, mind and heart. 

The special feature of Buddhist ethics is it’s concept of love and compassion is not confined to human beings only but it includes all the creatures of the universe. This universalistic approach of human being makes him love the animals also along with human being. Right to live must not be restricted to human beings only but it must be given to animals also. To allow human being to eat animals is to give animals the liberty to kill human beings. And resultantly, there will be disorder in the universe. ‘So, live and let others live’ is the motto of Buddhism. Our right to live will be snatched from us if wouldn’t allow others to live.

Q.6 - Explain about the sources and foundation of Jain ethics.

Ans. To know everything about Jain ethics one has to study the teachings of the omniscient Tirthankaras or teachers who has attained liberation and are entitled to guide others through the path of deliverance. Among the tenets of Jain ethics the triratnas and panchmahavratas are most important. Triratnas i.e. three gems of Jainism are: right knowledge, right faith and right conduct. Complete knowledge about the real nature of ego and non-ego which is free from doubt and error is right knowledge.

Faith supported by right knowledge is right kind of faith. By right faith Jain philosophers mean appropriate regard for tirthankaras with rational approach and proper sense of discrimination of what is good and what is bad. Acceptance of truth after analysis is advised in Jainism. But merely knowing and accepting the truth is not sufficient. Besides knowledge practice of these teachings is much more important. Proper knowledge of the tenets of tirthankars will strengthen the faith of the deciples.

Right knowledge accompanied by right faith will be incomplete without right conduct. In order to exhaust the fruits of the old karmas and cessation of the occurrence of new one, right conduct is essential. One has to restrain ones passions, senses, thoughts and speech so that he can behave properly. To do good deeds which are beneficial for oneself and others and abstain from everything which is harmful for oneself and the society as well is the right conduct. Right conduct is the only thing which opens the door of deliverance.

Ahimsa, satya, asteya, brahmacharya and aparigraha are the five maha vratas which are necessary for perfection of the sadhaka. A-himsa is not to harm others either physically, mentally or verbally, it may be either trasa or sthavara. Not to tell lie is to observe the law of truth. One should speak only good, pleasant and true things. Not to take anything without permission is asteya. Not to become prone to any type of indulgence is brahmacharya. Non-accumulation of any kind of material things is aparigraha.

Thus, we find that Jain ethics is very comprehensive which includes all the aspects of life. So, it conducive for liberation, thoroughly.