ETHICS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

ETHICS :

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ETHICS IN THE HISTORY OF INDIAN PHILOSOPHY

SOURCES OF MORAL IDEALS IN INDIA:

Quest: What are the sources of moral ideals in India?

Ans:- Since    the beginning of the Indian culture, we are being told to observe certain moral norms.  But the question is : What is the basis of these moral norms?  Of course, the source of morality in India is none other than the Vedas and Smrities.   Dharmashastra of Manu is the source of moral ideals in India. But, Vedas are the principle source of moral ideals of which authenticity is beyond question.  So, in the state of conflict, the norms dictated by Vedas are given priority.

        Besides scriptures, conscience and reason also play a crucial role in morality.  Due to voice of inner conscience men feel compassion for others.  Then only they are able to behave in a moral way. The source of morality may be good will and determination as well.  Gandhi and Sri Aurobindo were the proponent of the prominence of inner conscience in the decision  making process, regarding the matters of morality.

        The importance of authority and reasoning is of equal importance in Indian ethics. Reason is of utmost importance in both Buddhism and Jainism.  Right faith has been given priority over other jewels, in Jainism.  Nowhere, it has been said that one should blindly follow the precepts of Hindu ethics.  In Buddhism also reason has been given much importance.  Though Lord Buddha ascertained four noble truths but not  to be followed by blindfolded followers. There is always place for reason and doubt in it.  Contemporary philosophers, like Gandhi and Vivekananda has also given much importance to reason.  Though, not the source of ethical norms, reason may be used to ascertain the validity of it.

                     Thus, it has been proved that though the role of scriptures in deciding the moral ideals is undisputed fact yet reason and conscience cannot be ruled out from this domain.

ETHICS: ITS MEANING IN INDIAN TRADITION:

Question: What is the meaning of the concept of ‘ethics’ in Indian tradition?

Ans:   In Indian tradition ‘dharma’ the very technical word is used for ‘ethics’ or ‘morality’.  This very word ‘dharma’ has been derived from the root ‘dhri’ which means ‘to hold together’.  Thus, dharma is the very element which makes it possible for the human society to become stable and grow.  For the survival of the human society, right conduct is necessary. So, dharma ,in a sense, is synonymous with morality.  Thus, dharma signifies highest truth and power in the Vedas. Its implementation lies in the performance of Vedic sacrifices and rituals of the Vedas and Dharmashastras.

        This very word ‘dharma’ has been used in the sense of duties of human being, according to one’s own caste and stages of life.  By performing one’s duties, one can achieve heaven or better birth in the next life.  He or she can become prosperous by performing his/her duties.   Thus, the Hindu concept of dharma is mainly ritualistic and caste oriented.

        In fact, the very term ‘dharma’ has been used in Hinduism in two senses.  One is based on rituals and caste whereas another is related to the moral virtues and norms. So, dharma is inclusive of both duties and virtues in Indian tradition.

ETHICS IN VEDIC PERIOD:

Question: Explain the concept of ethics in the Vedic period.

Ans: The origin of Indian ethics may be traced back to the Vedic period. The central theme of Rig Veda is the concept of Rita which signifies the universal law of morality.  This concept of Rita includes two connotations: dharma and Karma. The term dharma has been mainly used in the sense of duty whereas the concept of karma signifies the universal law of morality. This very universal law monitors the actions of the human  beings. Vedic ethics, also includes the love and worship offered to the god with total surrender.  To perform the sacrifices and ceremonial duties is conform to the moral law i.e. Rita. And that very person will be able to achieve heaven.  Thus, ethics of the Vedas is God centric ethics.

        In the Upanishadic age , the goal of life shifted from happiness to liberation. The God centric approach of life turned into atman-centric. Ritualism changed into intellectualism. Desire of heaven was replaced by the eternal existence and basis of liberation.  Upanishadic ethics was totally opposed to the sacrificial ethics of the Vedas.  According to them, no sacrifice or ritual was needed for the attainment of moksha. So, human being were preached to concentrate on the atman not on the social or moral obligation. Realization of the identity of soul with Brahman was the only goal to be achieved by the human being. The subject matter of Upanishadic  ethics was only from the point of view of transcendental realism not this phenomenal world . Just to get rid of the evil spirit within was the whole sole purpose of life.  In the dictum of liberation from evil spirit is the whole morality implied. To get rid of ignorance is the target of human being because this ignorance is the cause of transmigration of the soul.  A person who has got enlightenment will not indulge in misdeeds because fair actions are the condition for the attainment of self-realization.

ETHICS IN DHARMASASTRAS AND ITIHASAS:

Quest: What is the concept of ethics in the Dharmashashtras and its Itihasas?  Discuss.

Ans:  The ethics in the Dharmashashtras and Itihasas  is mainly based of the Manusmriti  of Manu and Epics and Puranas.  Individual ethics,  morality of Upanishadic  age shifted to the  socialistic ethics of Hinduism.  Any individual will, of course, live  in a family and society.  His caste also decides the moral norms, he is supposed  to follow.  Man’s existence being relative to space and time, his duties also vary from time to time and place to place.  It also changes as per the class and the stages of life.  But though, human being has relative existence yet there are several universal virtues which men are supposed to follow.  These virtues are: contentment, forgiveness, self-control, non-stealing cleanliness, restraint of the senses, wisdom, knowledge of the Supreme  Atmam, truthfulness and abstention from anger etc. All these virtues are called sadharana dharma in Indian ethics which are the basis  of morality.

        So, though different on the point of goal of human being, all the scriptures have more or less a common ‘ethics’.

WAY OF RIGHTEOUSNESS IN THE GEETA:

Quest:  Explain the concept of nishkama Karma as enumerated in Indian ( Dec.-2011, 250 words)

Quest: Explain the ethics of Bhagavadgita (June-2013, 150 words, Dec.2013 150 words)

Ans:  The path other than Brahma Yoga is Karma Yoga, for the attainment of ultimate realization in this life and liberation from the cycle of transmigration.  This karma yoga is the yoga of disinterested action i.e. Nishkama Karma.  Attainment of liberation is possible only after one has freed oneself from the bondage of one’s own actions.  The special significance of the Karmayoga is in its spirit of non- attachment to only fruits of the actions, not the action itself.  As Saral Jhingaran opines that ‘the Bhagavadgita’s option of desireless action seems to be the perfect answer to the common fear of involvement in the transmigratory existence’.

       The detachment that the Gita generally upholds, excepting a few passages, in neither as extreme, nor as negative as that of the Advaita works.  As Vidyaranya says that the Bhagavadgita uses the term ‘like a detached person (udasinavat)’ which means that obsolete detachment is not required by it.  It’s ideal of equanimity or desirelessness refers mainly to the mental attitude of the agent and does not mean disowning one’s duties and social obligations.

       Saral Jhingaram further writes that, ‘the theism of the Bhagavadgita further transforms theory and negative ideal of world – renunciation and absolute detachment towards one’s fellow beings into a much more positive ideal of performance of all one’s duties in a spirit of total self –surrender to the Lord’.

Aspects of Hindu morality Saral Jhingaran -186

The altruistic morality involved in the verses of the Gita is evident in the following passage:

“ The self abiding in all beings and all beings abiding in the self sees he, whose  self has been made steadfast by Yoga and who everywhere sees the same_ _’.

Further, ‘He, O Arjuna, who sees with equality everything in the image of his own self, whether in pleasure or in pain, he is considered a perfect Yogin’.

Also, in the Gita an ideal devotee has been described as one who is kind and friendly towards all.

Question:  Discuss the relevance of the doctrine of Karma as elaborated in the Bhagavadgita  ( June-2012 , 250 words)

Ans. Karma-Yoga is one of the three yogas mentioned by the Gita.  According to this doctrine of Karma through a life of righteous actions one can realize the Supreme Reality.  With a sense of detachment one is advised to perform the duty because attachment is the cause of suffering.  From attachment desire springs from desire wrath arises, from wrath comes infatuation, from infatuation loss of memory and mind and finally from loss of mind one perishes.   So, actions are to be performed without any attachment to the fruits of action.  One is supposed to do with a sense of self-surrender to God.  Doing this one will not be afflicted  by the fruits of the Karmas one will become liberated because these Karmas are the cause of bondage , Thus , Karma -yoga is one of the means of attaining Brahmajnana .  The doctrine of Karma in the Gita is a blending of Karma and Jnanayoga.  Karma yoga in the Gita is a means of realizing the Brahman through devotional meditation and performance of one’s own duties with a sense of detachment.  Doing so one will be able to attain Brahmayoga which will result in infinite spiritual bliss and moral success.

ETHICAL CONCEPTS OF HINDU TRADITION:

Quest: Illustrate Hindu ethical ideals in Indian tradition. ( June – 2014,   250 words)

Quest: Discuss the doctrine of Karma ( June -2013, 150 words)

Quest: Explain the doctrine of karma and its ethical implications. (Dec.2012 500 words)

Doctrine of Karma:

Ans. In fact Karma means action and its result is the reaction of that very action and a part of action itself.  So, the result or effect cannot be separated from the cause or action.

        The source of origin of the doctrine of karma is Vedas and mainly Rig Veda. The whole ethical concept of Rig Veda is based on the concept of ‘Rita’, which means ‘universal law of morality’.  The concept of ‘Dharma’ and ‘Karma’ are the natural corollary of the concept of ‘Rita’ of the Vedas.  The concept of dharma has various interpretations. One of them is ‘duty’. The concept of Karma is based on the universal law of morality, which monitors the actions of the performers and the rewards and punishments as per their actions are given. The basis of both the concept of dharma and karma is Rita.  To conform to the universal moral law, one has to perform the sacrifices. Only then, one will achieve the eternal happiness in the heaven.

According to the doctrine of karma, the sorrows and happiness occurring in one’s life is the result of his deeds in the past.  There is a saying regarding the law of karma that, ‘as you sow, so shall you reap’. So, this life and its events are the harvest sprung from our own actions.  Good actions incur good results while bad actions incur bad results.  In the basis of sequence of actions, there are four types of karmas. First one is Sanchita Karma, which is that category of karma which were accumulated in the past life.  Second category of karma is Prarabdha Karma which is a part of Sanchita Karma which has started fructifying in this life.  Third, category of karma is Kriyamana Karma which is the name given to the actions being done in the present life.  The fourth and the last category of karma is Agami Karma.   It is that type of actions which are being done in the present and fructifying immediately after performance

Ethical Implications of the doctrine of Karma:   Since spirituality is the foundation of Indian Philosophy, the ancestors of Hindus were much more concerned about the life after death than the life here in this world.  That eternal entity, which exists even after death was considered as soul, as part of Brahman.  This very soul takes births, rebirths and reaps the fruits of actions.  Every embodied soul performs several actions throughout life.

        As per the law of Karma, if the agent acts in conformity with the law of Karma then he is happy, otherwise unhappy.  Being eternal, the soul never dies and at the same time it never exists without doing action.  Since, fruits of the Karmas are a part of Karma itself, the soul can   never be exempted from it.  It necessarily reaps whatever it had sown in the past.  Since, happiness is desired by all, every man should discriminate good actions from bad one so that he could achieve this goal.

        How does this law of Karma proceeds, has been nicely narrated by S.S. Boringly in his book, ‘Knowledge, Culture and Action’.  It goes like this:   Each action not only generates another action but also generates by the product in the form of Apurva: it is either merit or demerit, i.e. punya and pap. Furthermore, although some part of this merit or demerit is consumed some part of it remains stored while another part arrives over even after death and induces some other karma in the next birth even though they does not have any knowledge of its cause. The merit or demerit which allows man to react further is called kriyamana that which is operative, that is not utilized is called sanchita, when a part of sanchcita is carried beyond death and initiates further karmas in the next birth, it is called prarabdha.

Knowledge culture and action edi- Rekha Jha-339

Transmigration of Soul:   Transmigration of soul is the crucial point of the Hindu ethics.  It is the basis of the doctrine of Karma.  Life and death is a cyclic process and this is possible only with the acceptance of the concept of transmigration.  The individual continues to exist, even after the death of the body in the form of soul and this continuation is indefinite.  Due to the confinement of the soul in the body it gets entangled in the process of birth and death.  According to the Karmas done by the individual it goes through innumerable birth and deaths.  And ultimately after the exhaustion of all the karmas, it gets liberated.

As John M    Keller says that ‘ the idea of samsara  appears to be the result of a natural progression of thought.  Birth here, in this world, is followed by death, which is followed by rebirth in another heavenly world.  If birth here is followed by death here, will not birth there also be followed by death there’?

       This continuous procedure of birth and death is the natural outcome of actions.  Sankara says that actions produce association with the body.  Being associated with the body the agent goes through good and bad phases of life.  From these happenings there arises attachment and aversion which leads to further actions.  When these actions bear fruits, there is again association with the body and further action.  He writes in the Upadeshsahasri (1.1.3),  “As this is repeated , this transtrigratory  existence (samsara)  rolls onward powerfully forever like a wheel.  Because ignorance is the root cause of samsaric  existence , only knowledge  can destroy ignorance, action being incompatible,  cannot”.

       This view of Shankara is supported by all the systems of Indian philosophy except Mimamsa and Charvaka.  Though all the systems vary in the details of the theory, yet they all have consented to the law of Karma. This theory of Karma asserts that every action has its effect.  This effect affects both the agent and the world in which the agent acts.  The residual effect of the Karmas determine  the future of the agent and his further actions,  as well.  The impressions of the Karmas create the character and the habits of the doer.  The Vasanas created by these actions lead the person to a certain birth.  Some latent impressions which couldn’t fructify in this life are carried over into the next birth.  This is the cause of the transmigration of the soul.  Since, it is action which carries its energies forward in to the future, it is impossible to get rid of this cyclic process of samsara through actions.  Only self–realization can help the Jiva from the clutches of the transmigration.

SUPREME GOALS (PURUSHARTHAS):

Quest: Explain the purusharthas and their importance in Indian Ethics. June-2011     500 words

                                                                                                              

Quest: What is Purusartha? Spell out its ethical relevance (June -2012, 200 words)

Dharma – (100 words dec.2012)

Ans: The four values on the basis of which one should lead life, as per Hindu dharma are : dharma, artha, kama and moksha.  Dharma is of two types: sadharana  dharma and varnashrama dharma.  Sadharana  dharma as the name itself suggests, is of common types of duties  with an universal appeal and validity. Manu laid down ten types of cardinal virtues which are: endurance, patience, self-control, integrity, purity, restraint of senses, wisdom, learning, truth, absence of anger and non-violence.  All these ten virtues are included in the sadharana dharma.

        While varna dharma refers to the duties on the basis of one’s caste,   ashram dharma is related to the duties according to the stages of life.  In Hindu ethics, dharma is considered as a means  to liberation.

        The second purushartha, according to Hindu view of life, is ‘artha’. ‘Artha’ is the name given to the wealth and prosperity. Everything related to the materialistic achievement is indicated by this word.

        The third purushartha, which is named ‘kama’ is a comprehensive term which includes every type of desires, sexual as well as spiritual one.  This is the special characteristic of Indian ethics that it prescribes secular pleasures as well as the spiritual one. The concept of karma has been also included in Hindu ethics for the purpose of spiritual goal of human being. Though, it has been mentioned that this enjoyment must be restricted one.

        The fourth purushartha which is called as param purushartha is, liberation.  All the other three are instrumental for it.  It is also called mukti because it frees one from the cyclic process of birth and death. Kaivalya, apavarga, nirvana are the other names of it.

 Classical Hindu ethics recognizes four legitimate values, the purushaarthas  (dharma, artha, kama and moksha) of these dharma seems being parallel to the notion of morality, while moksha represents a value higher then  morality.

(Roy W. Perrett- Hindu Ethics- A Philosophical study – D-46)

        As John M Keller rightly says,’Since everything tangible and material is subject to death and destruction, it was logical to seek for a solution to the problem of re-birth in an intangible or spiritual reality, with which the true self could be identified.

SVADHARMA:

The word ‘sva’ means ‘one’s own’.  So the word ‘svadharma’ means ‘one’s own dharma’ which is based on one’s caste  and stage of life.  In fact the basis of the caste system is the theory of the three gunas i.e. sattva, rajas and tamas.  As per the prominence of the particular guna, one is assigned duty.  This very assigned duty of any individual on the basis of his guna is his svadharma.  According to the Indian ethical code, this arrangement is conducive to the smooth functioning of the society. This hierarchical arrangement is necessary for the development of the society.

        The four social clauses are: the Brahmana or priestly caste, whose social function is to study and teach the Vedas to perform sacrifices and to accept gifts; the Kshatriya, the ruler and warrior caste, whose function is to preserve order, it is necessary by force of arms; the Vaishya or merchant caste, whose economic activities ensure the physical well being of society; and the sudra or labourer, who serves the three other classes so that all of the above may function smoothly.  Various duties are assigned to members of the four varnas, taking into consideration the operation of the society as a whole.   

Svadharma:  The dharmic understanding of action given by Manu and Yajnavalkya has its root in the Vedic world view.  John M. Keller rightly says that,‘ the classical understanding of dharma presupposes that there is a fundamental norm of existence in which all being and processes participate each according to its own nature. The fundamental principle of action is to act in such a way as to follow the inner norm of one’s own being, thereby maintaining that optimal pattern of interrelationships recognized  by Vedic seers as ‘rita’ and known by the succeeding tradition as dharma’.

        According to the Vedic seers, unlike Buddhism, this life is not full of inevitable miseries, of which liberation is the option. Even by doing appropriate work, so that it will synchronize with the cosmic order i.e. rita, one can get the right side of the affections of the worldly existence.

Ques: What are the ethical duties assigned in Grihasthashrama? 

(December-2011,150 words)

Quest: Explain the four Ashramas and duties assigned at each stage. (June-2012, 200 words)

Ques: Discuss the four stages of human life according to Vedic Hinduism. ( Dec.-2012, 500 words)

STAGES OF LIFE: (ASHRAMA DHARMA):

Ans: Stages of Life or Ashrama Dharma: Indian Ethics is mainly based on Hindu religion and ashram dharma is also a part of Hindu religion.  According to it life is divided into four stages. First one is that of the Brahmachari (studenthood).  This studenthood  is based on celibacy and study of scriptures.  The second stage is Grihastha i.e. householder while third one is Vanaprastha i.e. the forest  dwellers and the last one is that of Sannyasin  i.e. the mendicant. Every man has to go through these stages one by one and should not enter any stage before time. Without violating the rule of celibacy, one should study the Vedas and after that enter into householder’s life.  And when his hairs start greying and skin wrinkling, at the same time he has grandson also, he should retire to the forest. After he has finished this third stage of life, he should accept asceticism and wander as mendicant. These four stages have been mentioned in the Hindu dharma, taking into consideration the development of the Jivatma. At the same time, it is condusive to the society.

        As John M. Koller rightly says, ‘the theory of life-stages (Ashrama) and the ordering of dharmas according to these stages is the most obvious attempt to accommodate both the dharmic and the sansaric understanding of action with a single scheme’.

        But Saral Jhingaran is of different view.  She writes that though  theoretically, all males of the three ‘upper’ classes were expected to follow the scheme of four stages of life. But in practice the four consecutive orders were not usually adopted by people other than the Brahmanas. It is significant that Manu, after describing the duties of four classes (Varnas) , discusses the four stages under the duties of brahmanas’. --- Brahmanas alone adopted regular brahmacarya, as a detailed knowledge of the Vedas and allied subjects was required for their particular profession of teaching and priesthood. Most people entered the second stage of grhastha (married life) after having spent only a few years in formal education.

                  In the same manner the last two stages have been mentioned in Mahabharata for Brahmans, only.

Hindu Rites, Samaskaras:  The special feature of Brahmanical religion and philosophy is sacrifice. Sacrifice is meant not only to appease the Gods but also feed them. By performing these rituals one can alone get rid of one’s sins. One of the most important sacrifices is the Srauta sacrifice and the Grihya ritual.  There is also provision of sacraments, known as Sanskaras. These Sanskaras are done to purify the body, mind and intellect of the individual . ‘Samkalpa’ or determination is the necessary factor for the performance of these sacraments. Some of the important Samskaras are :  Garbhadhanam ( conception), Pumsavanam (ensuring the male offspring), Simanthonnayanam (parting of the hair), Jata-Karmam ( Birth-ceremony), Namakaranam ( naming  ceremony),  Nishkramanam ( taking the child out of the house, so that he may see the sun), Annaprasanam ( the first feeding of the  child  with solid food in the sixth month), Chudakaranam ( the rite of tonsure ceremony),  karnavedham ( piercing of earlobes), Vidhyarambham ( beginning of knowledge)  Upanayanam ( Initiation by a teacher), Samavarthanam, Vivaha (marriage),  Antyesti ( funeral rights) etc,  

ETHICS IN BUDDHISM:

Quest:  Ethics in Buddhism   (June 2013)

Quest: Explain the ethical teachings of Buddhism (June-2011, 250 words)

Quest: Five precepts of Buddhism 9 Dec-2014-100 words)

Ans :  Ten meritorious  deeds mentioned  by Buddha, for gaining of happy and peaceful life are as follows:  Charity, Morality, Mental culture , Reverence  or Respect, Service in helping others,  Sharing merits with others, Rejoicing in the merits of others, Preaching and teaching of Dharma,  Listening of  Dharma, Straightening one’s views. We ourselves get the benefit of these meritorious deeds and persons who come into contact with us are also benefitted by it.  We are able to live in harmonious relations with others and peace is the natural outcome of it.

       On the other hand there are ten demeritorious deeds as well prohibited by Buddha.  These ten deeds are divided into three sets:   actions of body, verbal actions and actions of the mind. Killing of living beings, stealing and unlawful sexual intercourse are the misdeeds, which come in the first –category.  While in the second category come the deeds like – lying, slander harsh speech and meaningless talk.  Mental actions which are prohibited are: covetousness, ill-will, wrong views.  Rooted in greed, hatred and ignorance these misdeeds bring suffering to human beings.

       Intention of the deeds is the criterion for Buddhist morality.   Actions performed out of love and charity are good actions while actions performed out of greed and hatred  are bad actions.

       Ignorance is the root cause of malicious behaviour whereas wisdom is the basis of benevolence. Mental purification is the first requirement of any Buddhist practitioner.  One should not also do good deeds out of fear or to appease the divine beings or supernatural elements. Actions performed out of wisdom and understanding are the good one.

       There are five precepts mentioned by Buddhism to be remembered by any Buddhist daily.  There are like this: I take the training rule to refrain from killing living creatures, taking which is not given, sexual misconduct, false speech and taking intoxicating drugs and liquor.  These five refrains are called the panchsheela.

       To cultivate boundless love towards all beings is called “Metta” in Buddhism.  Without any expectation in return, whatever is done is the true charity.  One should not try to overpower others or make feel grateful to him, in response to the charity done by him.  Charity must be merely a means to culminate virtue. Compassion for all living beings is the another significant feature of Buddhism.  One should not restrict oneself to the human beings only. Every living being has the right to live.  So, it is immoral to take away the life of any living being. Existence of every creature is a part of universal order.  So, to destroy any creature is to destroy the universal order.  We don’t have any right to live, if we do not let others live.  Thus, holistic is approach of Buddhism.

JAIN ETHICS:

Quest:  Describe the foundation of Jaina Ethics - (Dec-2014 , 150 words)

Quest: Triratna  of Jainism (June-2014 -100 words)

Ans:  After rejecting Vedic ceremonialism and sacrificialism, Jainism accepts ahimsa as the most- important ethical virtue.  Right knowledge, right faith and right conduct are the three gems of Jainism which are known as ‘Triratnas’. Knowledge, which is free from doubt, error and uncertainty, is the right kind of knowledge.  It is based on the discrimination of ego and non-ego.  By studying thoroughly the teachings of the Tirthamkaras, this type of knowledge can be obtained. Since three Tirthankaras have already attained liberation, they can guide others to come out of bondage.

       Again, right faith does not mean blindly follow the
Tirthankaras.  But right attitude of respect towards truth is needed.  This right attitude should be supported by right knowledge.  Further, one must have right faith based on general acquaintance (samyag- darsana) in support of right knowledge. One’s belief is strengthened by studying the teachings of the Tirthankaras.

       But without right kind of conduct both right knowledge and right faith are useless.  Without rigorous practice of the preaching of Tirthankaras,  liberation is impossible.  Right kind of application of these teachings is the necessary condition for liberation.   Till the influx of new karmas has been ceased and exhaustion of the old one are done, enlightenment would not occur.  Restraint of passions, senses, thought, speech etc. are required for it.  Positively one has to do good deeds and negatively one has to refrain from doing evil deeds.

       One has to follow five great views i.e. pancamaha-vrata for perfection of right conduct. These five views are Ahimsa, satyam, asteyam, brahmacharyam and aparigraha. Ahimsa is not to learn any living being either trasa or sthavara. Satyam is abstinence from falsehood.  Only whatever is true, good and pleasant must be spoken.  One should not steal anything belonging to others.  To refrain from sensual and sexual pleasure as well, is brahmacharya.  A sense of detachment is to be developed for giving up all kinds of material things which are related to five senses.

       Thus, Jainism lays down the three golden rules for the perfection and liberation of human beings.